The mediating effect of forgiveness on the relationship between spirituality and psychological well-being in adults with history of childhood bullying

Michelle Theodora    -  Department of Psychology, Faculty of Psychology, Universitas Tarumanagara, Jakarta, Indonesia
Riana Sahrani    -  Department of Psychology, Faculty of Psychology, Universitas Tarumanagara, Jakarta
Roswiyani Roswiyani*    -  Department of Psychology, Faculty of Psychology, Universitas Tarumanagara, Jakarta, Indonesia

(*) Corresponding Author
DOI: 10.21580/pjpp.v8i2.17829

The long-term effects of childhood bullying on psychological well-being in adulthood have recently gained attention in research. This study examines the complex dynamics of the phenomenon by investigating the role of forgiveness as a mediator in the relationship between spirituality and psychological well-being among individuals who experienced bullying during their childhood. A purposive sample of 202 participants aged 19-40, who were bullied between the ages of 6-18, were recruited. The measurements used in the study included the Ryff Psychological Well-Being Scale (⍺ = .77) to measure psychological well-being; the Heartland Forgiveness Scale (⍺ = .82) to measure forgiveness; the Daily Spiritual Experiences Scale (⍺ = .94) to measure the spirituality of the participants; and the Olweus Bully/Victim Questionnaire (⍺ = .71) as a screening tool to confirm participants' experiences of bullying. Through mediation regression analysis with 5000 bootstrap samples using Macro PROCESS by Hayes, forgiveness emerged as a significant full mediator (β = .318, p < .05, 95% CI:  .212, .438). The study provides evidence that forgiveness enhances psychological well-being, suggesting that implementing a forgiveness program could reduce the long-term effect of childhood bullying.

Keywords: childhood bullying; forgiveness; psychological well-being; spirituality; young adult

  1. Abdussalam, M. S. (2020, February 8). Sejumlah kasus bullying sudah warnai catatan masalah anak di awal 2020, begini kata Komisioner KPAI. jabar.tribunnews.com. https://jabar.tribunnews.com/2020/02/08/sejumlah-kasus-bullying-sudah-warnai-catatan-masalah-anak-di-awal-2020-begini-kata-komisioner-kpai?page=2
  2. Akhtar, S., Dolan, A., & Barlow, J. (2017). Understanding the relationship between state forgiveness and psychological wellbeing: A qualitative study. Journal of Religion and Health, 56(2), 450–463. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10943-016-0188-9
  3. Alavi, N., Reshetukha, T., Prost, E., Antoniak, K., Patel, C., Sajid, S., & Groll, D. (2017). Relationship between bullying and suicidal behaviour in youth presenting to the emergency department. Journal of the Canadian Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 26(2), 70–77. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28747929
  4. Baron, R. M., & Kenny, D. A. (1986). The moderator–mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: Conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51(6), 1173–1182. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.51.6.1173
  5. Basileyo, A. E. (2019). Spirituality and psychological well-being: The mediating role pessimism. LPU-Laguna Journal of Multidisciplinary Research, 3(3), 26–41.
  6. Bowman, N. A. (2010). The development of psychological well-being among first-year college students. Journal of College Student Development, 51(2), 180–200. https://doi.org/10.1353/csd.0.0118
  7. Boylan, J. M., Tompkins, J. L., & Krueger, P. M. (2022). Psychological well-being, education, and mortality. Health Psychology, 41(3), 225–234. https://doi.org/10.1037/hea0001159
  8. Cast, A. D., & Burke, P. J. (2002). A theory of self-esteem. Social Forces, 80(3), 1041–1068. https://doi.org/10.1353/sof.2002.0003
  9. Chandra, T. (2019). Heartland Forgiveness Scale: Translations & adaptations [Indonesian Translation]. Heartland Forgiveness Scale. https://static1.squarespace.com/static/562403d2e4b0a77217f38772/t/5d643390939dc000018138fd/1566847889296/HFS-Indonesian-Chandra.pdf
  10. Copeland, W. E., Wolke, D., Angold, A., & Costello, E. J. (2013). Adult psychiatric outcomes of bullying and being bullied by peers in childhood and adolescence. JAMA Psychiatry, 70(4), 419. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2013.504
  11. Cornish, M. A., Meyer, J., Short, K., Harris, L., Hunter, E., & Quadlander, E. (2022). Forgiveness and wellbeing after spinal cord injury: Perceived stress and adaptation to disability as mediators. Rehabilitation Psychology, 67(4), 556–566. https://doi.org/10.1037/rep0000459
  12. Cox, S. S., Bennett, R. J., Tripp, T. M., & Aquino, K. (2012). An empirical test of forgiveness motives’ effects on employees’ health and well-being. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 17(3), 330–340. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0028314
  13. David, R., Singh, S., Ribeiro, N., & Gomes, D. R. (2022). Does spirituality influence happiness and academic performance? Religions, 13(7), 617. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel13070617
  14. deLara, E. W. (2019). Consequences of childhood bullying on mental health and relationships for young adults. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 28(9), 2379–2389. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-018-1197-y
  15. Ebrahimi, M., Azkhosh, M., Foroughan, M., Dolatshahi, B., & Shoaai, F. (2015). Role of failure to forgive self, others and uncontrollable situations in predicting depression among the elderly. Iranian Journal of Ageing, 10(1), 6–15. https://salmandj.uswr.ac.ir/article-1-715-en.html
  16. Egan, L. A., & Todorov, N. (2009). Forgiveness as a coping strategy to allow school students to deal with the effects of being bullied: Theoretical and empirical discussion. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 28(2), 198–222. https://doi.org/10.1521/jscp.2009.28.2.198
  17. Ekawardhani, N. P., Mar’at, S., & Sahrani, R. (2019). Peran self-esteem dan self-forgiveness sebagai prediktor subjective well-being pada perempuan dewasa muda. Jurnal Muara Ilmu Sosial, Humaniora, dan Seni, 3(1), 71–83. https://doi.org/10.24912/jmishumsen.v3i1.3538
  18. Enright, R. D. (2001). Forgiveness is a choice: A step-by-step process for resolving anger and restoring hope. American Psychological Association.
  19. Enright, R. D., & Coyle, C. T. (1998). Researching the process model of forgiveness within psychological interventions. In E. L. Worthington - Jr (Ed.), Dimensions of forgiveness: Psychological research & theological forgiveness (pp. 139–162). Templeton Foundation Press.
  20. Ermer, A. E., & Proulx, C. M. (2016). Unforgiveness, depression, and health in later life: The protective factor of forgivingness. Aging & Mental Health, 20(10), 1021–1034. https://doi.org/10.1080/13607863.2015.1060942
  21. Fetzer Institute. (1999). Multidimensional measurement of religiousness/Spirituality for use in health research: A report of the Fetzer Institute/National Institute on aging working group. National Institute on Aging/Fetzer Institute.
  22. Gattario, K. H., Lindwall, M., & Frisén, A. (2020). Life after childhood bullying: Body image development and disordered eating in adulthood. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 44(3), 246–255. https://doi.org/10.1177/0165025419877971
  23. Gilbertson, M. K., Brady, S. T., Ablorh, T., Logel, C., & Schnitker, S. A. (2022). Closeness to God, spiritual struggles, and wellbeing in the first year of college. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, 742265. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.742265
  24. Gireyhan, A. G. (2022). The moderator role of spirituality on the relationship between fear of Covid-19 and psychological well-being. Spiritual Psychology and Counseling, 7(2), 143–156. https://doi.org/10.37898/spc.2022.7.2.164
  25. Gonçalves, F. G., Heldt, E., Peixoto, B. N., Rodrigues, G. A., Filipetto, M., & Guimarães, L. S. P. (2016). Construct validity and reliability of Olweus Bully/Victim Questionnaire – Brazilian version. Psicologia: Reflexão e Crítica, 29(1), 27. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41155-016-0019-7
  26. Hafnidar, H., Chang, L., & Lin, H. (2013). Forgiveness as a mediator for the relationship between spirituality and posttraumatic growth in Aceh conflict victims, Indonesia. International Journal of Social Science and Humanity, 237–241. https://doi.org/10.7763/IJSSH.2012.V2.102
  27. Hall, J. H., & Fincham, F. D. (2008). The temporal course of self–forgiveness. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 27(2), 174–202. https://doi.org/10.1521/jscp.2008.27.2.174
  28. Halling, S. (1994). Shame and forgiveness. The Humanistic Psychologist, 22(1), 74–87. https://doi.org/10.1080/08873267.1994.9976938
  29. Henriksen, I. O., Ranøyen, I., Indredavik, M. S., & Stenseng, F. (2017). The role of self-esteem in the development of psychiatric problems: A three-year prospective study in a clinical sample of adolescents. Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health, 11(1), 68. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13034-017-0207-y
  30. Hojjat, M., & Ayotte, B. J. (2013). Forgiveness and positive psychology. In Positive Psychology of Love (pp. 121–133). Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199791064.003.0009
  31. Ingersoll-Dayton, B., & Krause, N. (2005). Self-forgiveness. Research on Aging, 27(3), 267–289. https://doi.org/10.1177/0164027504274122
  32. Ivtzan, I., Chan, C. P. L., Gardner, H. E., & Prashar, K. (2013). Linking religion and spirituality with psychological well-being: Examining self-actualisation, meaning in life, and personal growth initiative. Journal of Religion and Health, 52(3), 915–929. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10943-011-9540-2
  33. Juwita, V. R., & Kustanti, E. R. (2020). Hubungan antara pemaafan dengan kesejahteraan psikologis pada korban perundungan. Jurnal Empati, 7(1), 274–282. https://doi.org/10.14710/empati.2018.20196
  34. Karner-Huțuleac, A. (2020). Forgiveness, unforgiveness and health. Journal of Intercultural Management and Ethics, 3(2), 51–58. https://doi.org/10.35478/jime.2020.2.06
  35. Koenig, H. G. (2009). Research on religion, spirituality, and mental health: A review. The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 54(5), 283–291. https://doi.org/10.1177/070674370905400502
  36. Kohlberg, L. (1976). Moral stages and moralization: The cognitive-development approach. In Moral development and behavior: Theory research and social issues (pp. 31–53). Rinehart & Winston.
  37. Lawler-Row, K. A. (2010). Forgiveness as a mediator of the religiosity—health relationship. Psychology of Religion and Spirituality, 2(1), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0017584
  38. Lee, J.-H. H. (2013). School shootings in the US public schools: Analysis through the eyes of an educator. Review of Higher Education & Self-Learning, 6(22), 88–119.
  39. Lee, J. (2021). Pathways from childhood bullying victimization to young adult depressive and anxiety symptoms. Child Psychiatry & Human Development, 52(1), 129–140. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10578-020-00997-4
  40. Macaskill, A. (2005). Defining forgiveness: Christian clergy and general population perspectives. Journal of Personality, 73(5), 1237–1266. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2005.00348.x
  41. Malone, J., & Dadswell, A. (2018). The role of religion, spirituality and/or belief in positive Ageing for older adults. Geriatrics, 3(2), 28. https://doi.org/10.3390/geriatrics3020028
  42. Olweus, D. (2006). Revised Olweus bully/victim questionnaire. APA PsycTests. https://doi.org/10.1037/t09634-000
  43. Pargament, K. I. (2001). The psychology of religion and coping: Theory, research, practice. The Guilford Press.
  44. Quintana-Orts, C., Rey, L., & Worthington, E. L. (2021). The relationship between forgiveness, bullying, and cyberbullying in adolescence: A systematic review. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 22(3), 588–604. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838019869098
  45. Rigby, K. (2007). Bullying in schools and what to do about it. ACER Press.
  46. Ryff, C. D. (1989). Happiness is everything, or is it? Explorations on the meaning of psychological well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57(6), 1069–1081. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.57.6.1069
  47. Ryff, C. D., & Singer, B. (1996). Psychological weil-being: Meaning, measurement, and implications for psychotherapy research. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, 65(1), 14–23. https://doi.org/10.1159/000289026
  48. Salmivalli, C., & Peets, K. (2018). Bullying and victimization. In K. H. Rubin, W. M. Bukowski, & J. G. Parker (Eds.), Handbook of peer interactions, relationships, and groups (pp. 302–321). The Guilford Press.
  49. Shaver, N., Michaelson, V., & Pickett, W. (2022). Do spiritual health connections protect adolescents when they are bullied: A national study of 12,593 young Canadians. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 37(13–14), NP11034–NP11065. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260521989853
  50. Singh, A. K., Tiwari, G. K., & Deurkar, P. (2023). Why people do not forgive? An exploratory study of unforgiveness among Indian adolescents. Indian Journal of Positive Psychology, 14(2), 72–75.
  51. Soimah, Hamid, A. Y. S., & Daulima, N. H. C. (2019). Family’s support for adolescent victims of bullying. Enfermería Clínica, 29, 747–751. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enfcli.2019.04.113
  52. Solberg, M. E., & Olweus, D. (2003). Prevalence estimation of school bullying with the Olweus Bully/Victim Questionnaire. Aggressive Behavior, 29(3), 239–268. https://doi.org/10.1002/ab.10047
  53. Sweeting, J. A., Garfin, D. R., Holman, E. A., & Silver, R. C. (2020). Associations between exposure to childhood bullying and abuse and adulthood outcomes in a representative national U.S. sample. Child Abuse & Neglect, 101, 104048. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2019.104048
  54. Takizawa, R., Maughan, B., & Arseneault, L. (2014). Adult health outcomes of childhood bullying victimization: Evidence from a five-decade longitudinal British birth cohort. American Journal of Psychiatry, 171(7), 777–784. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2014.13101401
  55. Thompson, L. Y., Snyder, C. R., & Ho. (2005). Heartland Forgiveness Scale.
  56. Thompson, Laura Yamhure, Snyder, C. R., Hoffman, L., Michael, S. T., Rasmussen, H. N., Billings, L. S., Heinze, L., Neufeld, J. E., Shorey, H. S., Roberts, J. C., & Roberts, D. E. (2005). Dispositional forgiveness of self, others, and situations. Journal of Personality, 73(2), 313–360. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2005.00311.x
  57. Underwood, L. G. (2011). The Daily Spiritual Experience Scale: Overview and results. Religions, 2(1), 29–50. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel2010029
  58. Villani, D., Sorgente, A., Iannello, P., & Antonietti, A. (2019). The role of spirituality and religiosity in subjective well-being of individuals with different religious status. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 1525. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01525
  59. Wade, N. G., Hoyt, W. T., Kidwell, J. E. M., & Worthington, E. L. (2014). Efficacy of psychotherapeutic interventions to promote forgiveness: A meta-analysis. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 82(1), 154–170. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0035268
  60. Watson, H., Rapee, R., & Todorov, N. (2017). Forgiveness reduces anger in a school bullying context. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 32(11), 1642–1657. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260515589931
  61. Witvliet, C. van O., Ludwig, T. E., & Laan, K. L. Vander. (2001). Granting forgiveness or harboring grudges: Implications for emotion, physiology, and health. Psychological Science, 12(2), 117–123. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9280.00320
  62. Wolke, D., Copeland, W. E., Angold, A., & Costello, E. J. (2013). Impact of bullying in childhood on adult health, wealth, crime, and social outcomes. Psychological Science, 24(10), 1958–1970. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797613481608
  63. Worthington Jr, E. L., & Sandage, S. J. (2016). Forgiveness in brief psychotherapy: A relational approach. American Psychological Association.
  64. Zarzycka, B. (2019). Predictors and mediating role of forgiveness in the relationship between religious struggle and mental health. Polskie Forum Psychologiczne, 24(1), 93–116. https://doi.org/10.14656/PFP20190106
  65. Zimmer, Z., Jagger, C., Chiu, C.-T., Ofstedal, M. B., Rojo, F., & Saito, Y. (2016). Spirituality, religiosity, aging and health in global perspective: A review. SSM - Population Health, 2, 373–381. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssmph.2016.04.009

Open Access Copyright (c) 2023 Psikohumaniora: Jurnal Penelitian Psikologi
Creative Commons License
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.

Publisher:
Faculty of Psychology and Health, Universitas Islam Negeri Walisongo Semarang
Jl. Prof. Dr. HAMKA, Kampus III, Tambakaji Ngaliyan Semarang 50185 Central Java - Indonesia
website: fpk.walisongo.ac.id

 
Visitor Statistics
apps